[INFORMATIVE] Urban Ecology: Impact on the Environment
Urban Ecology: Impact on the Environment
By Mansi Kumbhare
Urban ecology is the scientific study of the relationship of living organisms with each other and their surroundings in an urban environment. An urban environment refers to environments dominated by high-density residential and commercial buildings, paved surfaces, and other urban-related factors that create a unique landscape. The goal of urban ecology is to achieve a balance between human culture and the natural environment.
Urban ecology is a recent field of study compared to ecology. Currently, most of the information in this field is based on the easier-to-study species of mammals and birds. To close the knowledge gap, attention should be paid to all species in the urban space like insects and fish. This study should also expand to suburban spaces with their unique mix of development and surrounding nature. The methods and studies of urban ecology are a subset of ecology.
The study of urban ecology carries increasing importance because more than 50% of the world's population today lives in urban areas. It is also estimated that within the next 40 years, two-thirds of the world's population will be living in expanding urban centers. The ecological processes in the urban environment are comparable to those outside the urban context. However, the types of urban habitats and the species that inhabit them are poorly documented which is why more research should be done in urban ecology.
History of Urban Ecology
Early ecologists defined ecology as the study of organisms and their environment. As time progressed urban ecology was recognized as a diverse and complex concept that differs in application between North America and Europe. The European concept of urban ecology examines the biota of urban areas, the North American concept has traditionally examined the social sciences of the urban landscape, as well as the ecosystem fluxes and processes, and the Latin American concept examines the effect of human activity on the biodiversity and fluxes of urban ecosystems.
Methods of Urban Ecology
Since urban ecology is a subfield of ecology, many of the techniques are similar to that of ecology. Ecological study techniques have been developed over centuries, but many of the techniques used for urban ecology are more recently developed. Methods used for studying urban ecology involve chemical and biochemical techniques, temperature recording, heat mapping remote sensing, and long-term ecological research sites.
1. Chemical and Biochemical techniques: Chemical techniques may be used to determine pollutant concentrations and their effects. Tests can be as simple as dipping a manufactured test strip, as in the case of pH testing, or be more complex, as in the case of examining the spatial and temporal variation of heavy metal contamination due to industrial runoff.
2. Temperature data and heat mapping: Temperature data can be used for various kinds of studies. An important aspect of temperature data is the ability to correlate temperature with various factors that may be affecting or occurring in the environment.
3. Remote sensing: Remote sensing is the technique in which data is collected from distant locations through the use of satellite imaging, radar, and aerial photographs. In urban ecology, remote sensing is used to collect data about terrain, weather patterns, light, and vegetation. One application of remote sensing for urban ecology is to detect the productivity of an area by measuring the photosynthetic wavelengths of emitted light. Satellite images can also be used to detect differences in temperature and landscape diversity to detect the effects of urbanization.
4. LTERs and long-term data sets: Long-term ecological research (LTER) sites are research sites funded by the government that have collected reliable long-term data over an extended period to identify long-term climatic or ecological trends. These sites provide long-term temporal and spatial data such as average temperature, rainfall, and other ecological processes. The main purpose of LTERs for urban ecologists is the collection of vast amounts of data over long periods.
Urban effects on the environment
Humans are the driving force behind urban ecology and influence the environment in a variety of ways - urbanization being a key example. Urbanization is tied to social, economic, and environmental processes. There are six core aspects: air pollution, ecosystems, land use, biogeochemical cycles, water pollution, solid waste management, and the climate.
1. Modification of land and waterways: Humans place a high demand on land not only to build urban centers but also to build surrounding suburban areas for housing. Land is also allocated for agriculture to sustain the growing population of the city. Expanding cities and suburban areas necessitate the corresponding deforestation to meet the land-use and resource requirements of urbanization.
2. Trade, shipping, and spread of invasive species: Both local shipping and long-distance trade are required to meet the resource demands important in maintaining urban areas. Carbon dioxide emissions from the transport of goods also contribute to accumulating greenhouse gasses and nutrient deposits in the soil and air of urban environments. In addition, shipping facilitates the unintentional spread of living organisms and introduces them to environments that they would not naturally inhabit.
Effects of urban animals on humans
Positive effects: Some urban animals can have a positive impact on the lives of humans. Studies show that the presence of domestic animals can reduce stress, anxiety, and loneliness. Additionally, some urban animals act as predators of animals like insects, etc., which can be harmful to humans. Also, urban species can serve many more purposes including agriculture, transport, and protection.
Negative effects: Some urban species harm humans. For example, pests' urine fecal matter and skin fragments can spread germs if ingested by humans. Diseases caused by pests or insects can be fatal. They include salmonella, meningitis, Weil's disease, Lyme disease, etc. Some people are allergic to certain insects like bees, and wasps, and therefore being exposed to them will cause serious allergic responses (rashes for example).
Urban effects on climate
Urban environments and outlying areas have been found to exhibit unique local temperatures, precipitation, and other characteristic activity due to a variety of factors such as pollution and altered geochemical cycles. Some examples of the urban effects on climate are urban heat islands, oasis effects, greenhouse gases, and acid rain.
Methods of Urban Ecology
Since urban ecology is a subfield of ecology, many of the techniques are similar to that of ecology. Ecological study techniques have been developed over centuries, but many of the techniques used for urban ecology are more recently developed. Methods used for studying urban ecology involve chemical and biochemical techniques, temperature recording, heat mapping remote sensing, and long-term ecological research sites.
1. Chemical and Biochemical techniques: Chemical techniques may be used to determine pollutant concentrations and their effects. Tests can be as simple as dipping a manufactured test strip, as in the case of pH testing, or be more complex, as in the case of examining the spatial and temporal variation of heavy metal contamination due to industrial runoff.
2. Temperature data and heat mapping: Temperature data can be used for various kinds of studies. An important aspect of temperature data is the ability to correlate temperature with various factors that may be affecting or occurring in the environment.
3. Remote sensing: Remote sensing is the technique in which data is collected from distant locations through the use of satellite imaging, radar, and aerial photographs. In urban ecology, remote sensing is used to collect data about terrain, weather patterns, light, and vegetation. One application of remote sensing for urban ecology is to detect the productivity of an area by measuring the photosynthetic wavelengths of emitted light. Satellite images can also be used to detect differences in temperature and landscape diversity to detect the effects of urbanization.
4. LTERs and long-term data sets: Long-term ecological research (LTER) sites are research sites funded by the government that have collected reliable long-term data over an extended period to identify long-term climatic or ecological trends. These sites provide long-term temporal and spatial data such as average temperature, rainfall, and other ecological processes. The main purpose of LTERs for urban ecologists is the collection of vast amounts of data over long periods.
Urban effects on the environment
Humans are the driving force behind urban ecology and influence the environment in a variety of ways - urbanization being a key example. Urbanization is tied to social, economic, and environmental processes. There are six core aspects: air pollution, ecosystems, land use, biogeochemical cycles, water pollution, solid waste management, and the climate.
1. Modification of land and waterways: Humans place a high demand on land not only to build urban centers but also to build surrounding suburban areas for housing. Land is also allocated for agriculture to sustain the growing population of the city. Expanding cities and suburban areas necessitate the corresponding deforestation to meet the land-use and resource requirements of urbanization.
2. Trade, shipping, and spread of invasive species: Both local shipping and long-distance trade are required to meet the resource demands important in maintaining urban areas. Carbon dioxide emissions from the transport of goods also contribute to accumulating greenhouse gasses and nutrient deposits in the soil and air of urban environments. In addition, shipping facilitates the unintentional spread of living organisms and introduces them to environments that they would not naturally inhabit.
Effects of urban animals on humans
Positive effects: Some urban animals can have a positive impact on the lives of humans. Studies show that the presence of domestic animals can reduce stress, anxiety, and loneliness. Additionally, some urban animals act as predators of animals like insects, etc., which can be harmful to humans. Also, urban species can serve many more purposes including agriculture, transport, and protection.
Negative effects: Some urban species harm humans. For example, pests' urine fecal matter and skin fragments can spread germs if ingested by humans. Diseases caused by pests or insects can be fatal. They include salmonella, meningitis, Weil's disease, Lyme disease, etc. Some people are allergic to certain insects like bees, and wasps, and therefore being exposed to them will cause serious allergic responses (rashes for example).
Urban effects on climate
Urban environments and outlying areas have been found to exhibit unique local temperatures, precipitation, and other characteristic activity due to a variety of factors such as pollution and altered geochemical cycles. Some examples of the urban effects on climate are urban heat islands, oasis effects, greenhouse gases, and acid rain.
1. Urban heat island effect: The urban heat island is a phenomenon in which central regions of urban centers exhibit higher mean temperatures than surrounding urban areas. Much of this effect can be attributed to low city albedo, the reflecting power of a surface, and the increased surface area of buildings to absorb solar radiation. Concrete, cement, and metal surfaces in urban areas tend to absorb heat energy rather than reflect it, contributing to higher urban temperatures.
2. Greenhouse gases: Emissions of greenhouse gases allow humans to inhabit the earth because they capture heat from the sun to make the climate adequate. In 1896, Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius established that fossil fuels caused carbon dioxide emissions (the most abundant and harmful greenhouse gas). In the 20th century, American climate scientist James E. Hansen concluded that the Greenhouse effect is changing the climate for the worse.
3. Acid rain and pollution: Processes related to urban areas result in the emission of numerous pollutants, which change the corresponding nutrient cycles of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, and other elements. Ecosystems in and around the urban center are especially influenced by these point sources of pollution. High sulfur dioxide concentrations resulting from the industrial demands of urbanization cause rainwater to become more acidic.
Conclusion
Urbanization results in a series of both local and far-reaching effects on biodiversity, biogeochemical cycles, hydrology, and climate, among other stresses. Many of these effects are not fully understood, as urban ecology has only recently emerged as a scientific discipline and more research remains to be done. Research on cities outside the US and Europe remains limited. Observations on the impact of urbanization on biodiversity and species interactions are consistent across many studies but definitive mechanisms have yet to be established.
Citations
Niemelä, J. (1999). urban ecology. Biodiversity and Conservation, 8(1), 119–131. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1008817325994
Magle, S. (2018). Human–animal relationships in the urban wild. In Oxford University Press eBooks (pp. 119–141). https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198753629.003.0007
More than half of world’s population now living in urban areas, UN survey finds. (2014, July 10). UN News. https://news.un.org/en/story/2014/07/472752
Ritchie, H., Samborska, V., & Roser, M. (2024, February 23). Urbanization. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/urbanization
Root, R. B. (1979). Explaining an Evolutionary Success: Diversity of Insect Faunas . Papers from a symposium, London, Sept. 1977. L. A. Mound and N. Waloff, Eds. Published for the Royal Entomological Society by Blackwell, Oxford, 1979 (U.S. distributor, Halsted [Wiley], New York). x, 204 pp., illus. $37.50. Symposia of the Royal Entomological Society of London, No. 9. Science, 205(4405), 484–485. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.205.4405.484
Wikipedia contributors. (2024, July 18). Environmental protection. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_protectionp
3. Acid rain and pollution: Processes related to urban areas result in the emission of numerous pollutants, which change the corresponding nutrient cycles of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, and other elements. Ecosystems in and around the urban center are especially influenced by these point sources of pollution. High sulfur dioxide concentrations resulting from the industrial demands of urbanization cause rainwater to become more acidic.
Conclusion
Urbanization results in a series of both local and far-reaching effects on biodiversity, biogeochemical cycles, hydrology, and climate, among other stresses. Many of these effects are not fully understood, as urban ecology has only recently emerged as a scientific discipline and more research remains to be done. Research on cities outside the US and Europe remains limited. Observations on the impact of urbanization on biodiversity and species interactions are consistent across many studies but definitive mechanisms have yet to be established.
Citations
Niemelä, J. (1999). urban ecology. Biodiversity and Conservation, 8(1), 119–131. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1008817325994
Magle, S. (2018). Human–animal relationships in the urban wild. In Oxford University Press eBooks (pp. 119–141). https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198753629.003.0007
More than half of world’s population now living in urban areas, UN survey finds. (2014, July 10). UN News. https://news.un.org/en/story/2014/07/472752
Ritchie, H., Samborska, V., & Roser, M. (2024, February 23). Urbanization. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/urbanization
Root, R. B. (1979). Explaining an Evolutionary Success: Diversity of Insect Faunas . Papers from a symposium, London, Sept. 1977. L. A. Mound and N. Waloff, Eds. Published for the Royal Entomological Society by Blackwell, Oxford, 1979 (U.S. distributor, Halsted [Wiley], New York). x, 204 pp., illus. $37.50. Symposia of the Royal Entomological Society of London, No. 9. Science, 205(4405), 484–485. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.205.4405.484
Wikipedia contributors. (2024, July 18). Environmental protection. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_protectionp
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